Problems faced by south-east asian in studying tenses and their solutions Essay

0. ABSTRACT: What do you think are the problems faced by the Pakistani learner while learning tenses of English? This paper highlights the problems of grammar teaching. Some teachers have been selected who have taught/have been teaching grammar for several years at school level. On the basis of the feedback given by the teachers, this research report is presented. 1. INTRODUCTION: Language is the chief means by which the human personality expresses itself and fulfills its basic need for social interaction with other persons. It is clear that the term â€Å"grammar† has meant various things at various times and sometimes several things at one time. This plurality of meaning is characteristic of the present time and is the source of confusions in the discussion of grammar as part of the education of children. There have been taking place violent disputes on the subject of teaching grammar at school. The ability to talk about the grammar of a language, to recite its rules, is also very different from ability to speak and understand a language or to read and write it. Those who can use a language are often unable to recite its rules, and those who can recite its rules can be unable to use it. Grammar organizes the vocabulary and as a result we have sense units. There is a system of stereotypes, which organizes words into sentences. 1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM: What skill does grammar develop? Does it gives the ability to make up sentences correctly to reproduce text adequately? If does so then how much practice is needed for the development of the practical skill that can enable pupil point the specific grammar structure differences between the mother tongue and the target language. 1.2 HYPOTHESIS Systematic and an organized study of tenses in grammar can solve the communication related issues in learning especially those related to the target language. 1.3 OBJECTIVES: 1. To investigate problems faced by Pakistani learners during English tense-learning. 2. To recognize the hindrances faced by students in learning tenses. 3. To highlight the problems of grammar teaching and suggest the solution for them. 1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH: It will prove to be useful in obtaining information from students and teachers statistically, and will give an accurate report on how the problems come forth and consequently how to tackle them 2 LITERATURE REVIEW: The component issues are how to enhance the REASEARCH BASED REVIEWS: Author: Middlesmoor My main belief is that modern teaching techniques and their text books can be too dispersive. The principles of the †communicative approach† allied to the presentation of language according to the seemingly self evident concept of the â€Å"functions† of language, when put into the context of the class room, lead to confusing lack of focus. As a result, when pupils have a sense of confusion they become de-motivated. I have a central objection to the theoreticians’ distinction between â€Å"learning† a language and â€Å"acquiring† one when it is applied to school. Schools are not full of infant native speakers trying out the language as was the little English boy who said â€Å"I swimmed in the river.† Huge damage has been done. Schools are artificial places and they need a whole range of techniques of learning. Another objection to the notion of â€Å"acquiring† a language and wanting to imitate that in schools is that it makes us think that memory in school can be viewed as similar to the mechanisms that help us â€Å"acquire† (absorb unconsciously) our mother tongue. The word †acquire† is preferred as a softer word than learn. Learn is considered too Prussian as it were and linked to memorising. However consider how the expression â€Å"learning by heart† is a much less rigid sounding expression than if we used the term â€Å"memorising†. In the distinction; â€Å"learn† versus â€Å"acquire†, the idea is that learning is the wrong mechanism – dull, bookish and forced. Why is it that a term like â€Å"learn†, suddenly, after thousands of years of happy use in the language suddenly smells and we have to invent â€Å"acquire†? I’m suspicious of such distinctions and the undermining of accepted sense. Such theological repositioning is tendentious. It supposes that something is proved by simply using a supposedly self evident term. We can say that children â€Å"learn† that fires burn or they â€Å"learn† that not everything is what it seems to be! We don’t need to say that they â€Å"acquire† the effects of fire or differentiation! Young English children â€Å"learn† that there are some action words (verbs) that are regular when applied to the past (arrived) and others that behave in odd ways (swum). These distinctions come slowly. They â€Å"learn† them, as they do other things, by trial and error. It is true that young children â€Å"pick up† languages with amazing ease, but that is another story and it is certainly not a secret ability easily transferred to schools by thinking that such ease is natural and unthinking as is suggested (not proved) by the use of the term â€Å"acquire†. But this distinction has made text books woolly with false naturalism. When a young 3 year old told me â€Å"Today we swimmed in the river† he was intelligently generalising about a â€Å"learnt† aspect of verbs. By observation and repetition practice he had seen regularity – though yet imperfectly. The mentality – the brain mechanisms of learning your â€Å"mother† tongue are mysterious and specific to certain ages. We should be very careful before thinking that this mystery can be reproduced by means of class room text books in the weirdly unreal setting of a school classroom. No, language learning at school depends on suitable procedures for â€Å"learning† and remembering. Obviously â€Å"learning† is a complex matter. But one shouldn’t tendentiously falsify the word/- concept â€Å"learn† into a daft travesty of â€Å"crouch – over – your – books – and – memorise â€Å", from which we are then rescued by the saintly term â€Å"acquire† which p ossesses the secret of doing everything effortlessly!. Few of us these days exercise our memory. It should be obvious to anyone that language learning requires memorisation. Out of fear of so called rote learning we think everything should proceed â€Å"naturally†, be acquired, i.e. effortlessly. However, we learn our own language with considerable repetitive practice. The so called â€Å"natural† methodology of language teaching is a sham. What we need is artificial procedures that mimic certain repetitive practice situations in the native learner and these procedures should be fun. When we learn our mother tongue we are at full stretch in our attention and will to understand and communicate. This is not so at school. In the grammar book there are countless suggestions for practising and recycling the specimen sentences â€Å"nuggets’ on the grammar pages, and games for learning vocabulary. Who in the â€Å"natural or â€Å"communicative approach† is doing the artificial / unnatural business of teaching vocabulary? In my experience, running a language school for foreign children, they know hardly any words in a really active sense; i.e. Words that are easily recoverable to their memories. Since young people have good memories the grammar units are exemplified with short plays that focus on the one grammar aspect. These plays are to be learnt by heart and acted and preferably filmed within 10 –15 minutes. (may be in competetive pairs doing the same play.) Thus the slower children will be really helped to keep up with the rest of the class  by watching various versions of the same play / grammar area. And then everyone can have further repetition practice by watching the vid eoed performances. These plays are also examples to help pupils make similar plays around grammar islands. To get their imaginations going and give ideas for plays, I have supplied a whole last section called â€Å"Human life charts† Teaching â€Å"Grammar† is often confusing. Instead of focusing attention on the basic grammatical forms of language, the enterprise gets drowned in pedantic â€Å"metalanguage†. Often grammar teaching makes matters worse. I felt at Middlesmoor that I could do it differently. Small children of any nationality are aware of grammar. They build up hypotheses of trial and error. In our example of â€Å"I swimmed a â€Å"rule (†¦ed) has been perceived that has exceptions (â€Å"irregular verbs!) Why do I point this out? Because some experts have been so disapproving of bad teaching of grammar that they reject any teaching of structural consistencies. Children are not just creative. ( they are rather less so than they are famed to be!) What they are is quite sharply rational. They appreciate clarity. I wanted a simple grammar book. There wasn’t one. The reason is that people who write grammar books are writing with a worry about what pedant teachers or experts will say of their definitions. They are not thinking directly of the â€Å"customers† (the students) The result is that there is far too much â€Å"exactitude† and the student has too wade through oceans of â€Å"truth† only to drown in it! I decided that at Middlesmoor we needed to give the visitors security with the very basic language patterns which were at the same time clothed in examples of immediate utility: â€Å"Can I have some water please?† † I haven’t seen her† â€Å"When are we playing football?etc. When we are young we learn without grammar but then as children, play activities are relatively repetitive and restricted. Therefore young children’s speaking is focused on a restricted vocabulary and certain simple grammatical structures. We therefore had to write our own grammar to suit the very uncertain knowledge of our visitors: particularly the Italians. Grammar must be presented in larger areas than is usual and be supported by creative open ended material which is still grammar focused. We made a special linear  grammar to make self access possible to the students. In this way lessons are paradoxically liberated from grammar. There is no sense in splitting up and atomising the grammar for easy digestion. (that is, easy digestion at first view). For example it is only apparently sensible to split into gradual sections, the presentation of the 3 futures or 3 pasts (past perfect and past simple and past continuous) Their use is inter dependent. Teach them together and after the first difficulty of â€Å"too much at once†, progress is quick and lasting.) You don’t have to give to a grammar the gradualised lay out of a course book. The objection that the usual practice of splitting up grammar into small bits, helps the student because it is â€Å"gradual†, is totally mistaken. (Besides, once split up how can he/she go back to study the interconnecting logic of the â€Å"whole† problem or actually find what he wants) The benefit of the â€Å"whole† presentation of islands of grammar is that the student can find his own way to a whole understanding: the grammar gradually comes into focus as it does when we learn our own language. It also means that such larger units of connected grammar are much more easily turned into grammar plays. What is â€Å"grammar† but just that regularity that the 3 year old’s â€Å"I swimmed† was hypothesising? Children in a classroom situation need language that is focused and easily recyclable: that is, we must artificially recreate the simple environment of our previously described child learner of L2 and situate that language in a context that encourages repetition and recreation As a bridge from these grammar areas and phrases I have written grammar plays. At Middlesmoor we use theatre a lot. Children have much readier memories than adults. A pity we don’t exploit this more. Children learn languages quickly in the natural state because communication is desired by them and also because the language they use is so narrow, and it is endlessly recycled, repeated and refashioned. Children work outwards from a tight circle of usefulness. The plays are a way of making up for the fact that class room situations in which children are taught are all more or less artificial and that the ways of â€Å"natural language acquisition† cannot be transferred to text books. My preferred method of teaching would be to base everything on grammar and special dictionaries and to use the blackboard as note pad for collecting information about the children’s real world of experience. Also newspapers contain stories that fascinate children as young as 9 or 10. They just need a simplified sentence structure and vocabulary. A final point. If we don’t make a fetish of grammar and also if we are no longer terrified by the idea that â€Å"grammar is old fashioned† we will be the quicker free of it and able to use the language for interesting tasks, ie. we will use it naturally! A didactic that frankly uses grammar as a central reference point from which to depart ( and only return to in quick visits) will be much freer from it than the victims of the hotch potch muddle of â€Å"functional† text books. Obviously we must avoid the old grammar teaching which was abstruse gobbledy gook that was like a mountain range so tortuous to cross that few survived to reach the actual language! Author: Katy Allen MBE Director, Village Education Project Kilimanjaro An analysis of the obstacles in the way of effective pupil-centred teaching and learning of the English language in Tanzanian government I have 14 years’ experience working in government primary schools through the NGO Village Education Project Kilimanjaro. It is apparent from working in the schools, from visiting the EQUIP programme in August 2007, and from conducting a district seminar and other training and observations that pupil-centred learning is not taking place on any significant scale in the teaching of English. Only an honest evaluation will assist any future development of primary English education In teaching English to young learners it is essential to consider how children learn. There are recognised stages of cognitive development that every child passes through, and teaching material should take account of  this. There is also a very great need for the motivation to learn English for both the pupils and the teachers. teaching ideas. It is not sufficient to leave these teachers with inadequate support. They must now be spoon-fed with lesson plans, detailed ideas for games and activities and material for inter-cultural studies, as well as basic structures, words and phrases for them to conduct classroom routines in English as well as delivery of some specific English tuition. All of this will take account of the age of the pupils and their stage of cognitive development and also of the current level of expertise of the available teachers, the need to motivate both pupil and teacher, and the time available in the classroom for routine activities. Teachers need detailed, supportive materials so that their pupils are motivated, and learn systematically and the teachers themselves are assisted to understand the English being taught and assisted with the methods of teaching. It is important to bear in mind the stages of development of children when assessing or planning a primary language course. For an overview of Piaget and Stages of Cognitive Development see Appendix 1. In addition attention should be paid to how the brain works. Glover and Bruning5 have summarised six major principles of cognitive psychology as they relate to instruction: 1. Pupils are active processors of information 2. Learning is most likely to occur when information is made meaningful to pupils 3. How pupils learn may be more important that what they learn 4. Cognitive processes become automatic with repeated use 5. Metacognitive skills can be developed through instruction 6. The most enduring motivation for learning is internal motivation Teachers with insufficient subject knowledge have very little if any confidence. Teacher training should be concerned with two elements:15 1. Subject Knowledge – ensuring that the future teachers know and understand enough about what they are to teach to be able to teach it effectively 2. Subject Application – ensuring that the future teachers know and understand enough about how to teach what they are to teach to be able to do so effectively. 1.QUALITATIVE Qualitative research is a method of inquiry appropriated in many different academic disciplines, traditionally in the social sciences, but also in market research and further contexts Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. The qualitative method investigates the why and how of decision making, not just what, where, when. Hence, smaller but focused samples are more often needed, rather than large samples.For example, if you are asked to explain in qualitative terms a thermal image displayed in multiple colours, then you would explain the colour differences rather than the heat’s numerical value.The most common is analysis of qualitative data is observer impression.Observers examine the data, interpret it via forming an impression and report their impression in a structured and sometimes quantitative form. First, cases can be selected purposefully, according to whether or not they typify certain characteristics or contextual locations. Secondly, the role or position of the researcher is given greater critical attention. This is because in qualitative research the possibility of the researcher taking a ‘neutral’ or transcendental position is seen as more problematic in practical and/or philosophical terms. Hence qualitative researchers are often exhorted to reflect on their role in the research process and make this clear in the analysis. Thirdly, while qualitative data analysis can take a wide variety of forms it tends to differ from quantitative research in the focus on language, signs and meaning as well as approaches to analysis that are holistic and contextual, rather than reductionist and isolationist. Nevertheless, systematic and transparent approaches to analysis are almost always regarded as essential for rigor. For example, many qualitative methods require researchers to carefully code data and  discern and document themes in a consistent and reliable way. 2.QUANTITATIVE: quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to phenomena. The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides the fundamental connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships. Statistical surveys were used to collect quantitative information about items in a population. Surveys of human populations and institutions are common in political polling and government, health, social science and marketing research. The survey focused on opinions or factual information depending on its purpose, and involved administering questions to individuals. When the questions were administered by a researcher, a structured interview or a researcher-administered survey prwsented itself. ALTERNATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES: 1.QUESTIONNNAIRE: Questionnaire replies Name: yasir arafat School F.G boys secondary school chattar Class: 5 1. A 5. A 2. A 6. A 3. A 7. A 4. A 8. A 9. Ans: the tenses should be taught in such a way that the students must not be asked to memorise the rules but to be able to use them properly. In this way an internal grammar would be generated which would be helpful in communication rather than a hinderance. 10. Ans: In the beginning the teacher should try to gain the attention and interest among the students by explaining the similarities between English language and the native language. Then he should try to teach English tenses in English. Name: Zahid Ali School: F.G school Malpur Ibd. Class: 6 1. C 2. A 3. A 4. B 5. A 6. A 7. A 8. A 9. Ans: 10. Ans: Name: Kamran School: Madina Model College Class: 8 1. B 5. A 2. A 6. A 3. A 7. A 4. A 8. A 9. Ans: The students should first know the basic things of grammar like parts of speech and then sentence structure and then move on to tenses. And the tenses should be in such and order that they should move from easy to difficult. 10. Ans: Tenses teaching should be made interesting and the teacher should first motivate the students in this regard. The students should be asked to make use of every tense they go through. OBSERVATION: To develop one’s speech means to acquire essential patterns of speech and grammar patterns in particular. Children must use these items automatically during speech-practice. The automatic use of grammar items in our speech (oral and written) supposes mastering some particular skills – the skills of using grammar items to express one’s own thoughts, in other words to make up your sentences. We must get so-called reproductive or active grammar skills. A skill is treated as an automatic part of awareness. Automatization of the action is the main feature of a skill. The nature of Automatization is characterized by that psychological structure of the action which adopts to the conditions of performing the action owing frequent experience. The action becomes more frequent, correct and accurate and the number of the operations is shortened while forming the skill the character of awareness of the action is changing, i.e. fullness of understanding is paid to the conditions and quality of performing to the control over it and regulation. To form some skills is necessary to know that the process of the forming skills has some steps: – Only some definite elements of the action are automatic. – The Automatization occurs under more difficult conditions, when the child can’t concentrate his attention on one element of the action. – The whole structure of the action is improved and the automatization of its separate components is completed. What features do the productive grammar skills have? During our speech the reproductive grammar skills are formed together with lexis and intonation, they must express the speaker’s intentions. The actions in the structural setting of the lexis must be learnt. The characteristic feature of the reproductive grammar skills is their flexibility. It doesn’t depend on the level of Automatization, i.e. on perfection of skill here mean the original action: both the structure of sentence, and forms of the words are reproduced by the speaker using different lexical material. If the child reproduces sentences and different words, which have been learnt by him as â€Å"a ready-made thing† he can say that there is no grammar skill. Learning the ready-made forms, word combinations and sentences occurs in the same way as learning lexis. The grammar skill is based on the general conclusion. The grammar action can and must occur only in the definite lexical limits, on the definite lexical material. If the pupil can make up his sentence frequently, accurately and correctly from the grammatical point of view, he has got the grammar skill. Teaching grammar at school using the theoretical knowledge brought some critical and led to confusion. All the grammatical rules were considered to be evil and there were some steps to avoid using them at school. But when we learn grammatical items in models we use substitution and such a type of training gets rid of grammar or â€Å"neutralizes† it. By the way, teaching the skills to make up sentences by analogy is a step on the way of forming grammar skills. It isn’t the lexical approach to grammar and it isn’t neutralization of grammar, but using basic sentences in order to use exercises by analogy and to reduce number of grammar rules when forming the reproductive grammar skills. To form the reproductive grammar skills we must follow such steps: – Selection the model of sentence. – Selection the form of the word and formation of wordforms. – Selection the auxiliary words-preposition, articles, and etc. and their combination with principle words. The main difficulty of the reproductive (active) grammar skills is to correspond the purposes of the statement, communicative approach (a questionan answer and so on), words, meanings, expressed by the grammatical patterns. In that case we use basic sentences, in order to answer the definite situation. The main factor of the forming of the reproductive grammar skill is that pupils need to learn the lexis of the language. They need to learn the meanings of the words and how they are used. We must be sure that our pupils are aware of the vocabulary they need at their level and they can use the words in order to form their own sentence. Each sentence contains a grammar structure. The mastering the grammar skill lets pupils save time and strength, energy, which can give opportunity to create. Learning a number of sentences containing the same grammatical structure and a lot of words containing the same grammatical form isn’t rational. But the generalization of the grammar item can relieve the work of the mental activity and let the teacher speed up the work and the children realize creative activities. The process of creation is connected with the mastering of some speech stereotypes the grammatical substrat is hidden in basic sentences. Grammar is presented as itself. Such a presentation of grammar has its advantage: the grammar patterns of the basic sentences are connected with each other. But this approach gives pupils the opportunity to realize the grammar item better. The teaching must be based on grammar explanations and grammar rules. Grammar rules are to be understood as a special way of expressing  communicative activity. The reproductive grammar skills suppose to master the grammar actions which are necessary for expressing thoughts in oral and written forms. The automatic perception of the text supposes the reader to identify the grammar form according to the formal features of words, word combinations, sentences which must be combined with the definite meaning. One must learn the rules in order to identify different grammatical forms. Pupils should get to know their features, the ways of expressing them in the language. We teach children to read and aud by means of grammar. It reveals the relation between words in the sentence. Grammar is of great important when one teaches reading and auding. The forming of the perceptive grammar and reproductive skills is quite different. The steps of the work is mastering the reproductive skills differ from the steps in mastering the perceptive skills. To master the reproductive grammar skills one should study the basic sentences or models. To master the perceptive grammar skills one should identify and analyze the grammar item. Though training is of great importance to realize the grammar item. 1.3 The Content of Teaching Grammar Before speaking about the selection of grammar material it is necessary to consider the concept â€Å"grammar†, i.e., what it meant by â€Å"grammar†. By grammar one can mean adequate comprehension and correct usage of words in the act of communication, that is, intuitive knowledge of the grammar of the language. It is a set of reflexes enabling a person to communicate with his associates. Such knowledge is acquired by a child in the mother tongue before he goes to schools. This â€Å"grammar† functions without the individual’s awareness of technical nomenclature; in other words, he has no idea of the system of the language, and to use all the word-endings for singular and plural, for tense, and all  the other grammar rules without special grammar lessons only due to the abundance of auding and speaking. His young mind grasps the facts and â€Å"makes simple grammar rules† for arranging the words to express carious thoughts and feelings. This is true because sometimes little children make mistakes by using a common rule for words to which that rule cannot be applied. For example, a little English child might be heard to say Two mans comed instead of Two men come, because the child is using the plural â€Å"s† rule for man to which the rule does not apply, and the past tense ed rule for come which does not obey the ordinary rule for the past tense formation. A little Russian child can say Ð ½Ã ¾Ã ¶Ã ¾Ã ² instead of Ð ½Ã ¾Ã ¶Ã µÃ ¹ using the case-ending â€Å"Ð ¾Ã ²Ã¢â‚¬  for Ð ½Ã ¾Ã ¶Ã ¸ to which it does not apply. Such mistakes are corrected as the child grows older and learns more of his language. By â€Å"grammar† we also mean the system of the language, the discovery and description of the nature of language itself. It is not a natural grammar, but a constructed one. There are several constructed grammars: traditional, structural, and transformational grammars. Traditional grammar studies the forms of words (morphology) and how they are put together in sentences (syntax); structural grammar studies structures of various levels of the language (morpheme level) and syntactic level; transformational grammar studies basic structures and transformation rules. What we need is simplest and shortest grammar that meets the requirements of the school syllabus in foreign languages. This grammar must be simple enough to be grasped and held by any pupil. We cannot say that this problem has been solved. Since graduates are expected to acquire language proficiency in aural comprehension, speaking and reading grammar material should be selected for the purpose. There exist principles of selecting grammar material both for teaching speaking knowledge (active minimum) and for teaching reading knowledge (passive minimum), the main one is the principle of frequency, i.e., how frequently this or that grammar item occurs. For example, the Present Simple (Indefinite) is frequently used both in conversation and in various texts. Therefore it should be included in the grammar minimum. For selecting grammar material for reading the principle of polysemia, for instance, is of great importance. Pupils should be taught to distinguish such grammar items which serve to express different meanings. For example, -s (es) The selection of grammar material involves choosing the appropriate kind of linguistic description, i.e., the grammar which constitutes the best base for developing speech habits. Thus the school syllabus reflect a traditional approach to determining grammar material for foreign language teaching, pupils are given sentences patterns or structures, and through these structures they assimilate the English language, acquire grammar mechanisms of speech The content of grammar teaching is disputable among teachers and methodologists, and there are various approaches to the problem, pupils should, whatever the content of the course, assimilate the ways of fitting words together to form sentences and be able to easily recognize grammar forms and structures while hearing and reading, to reproduce phrases and sentences stored up in their memory and say or write sentences of their own, using grammar items appropriate to the situation. The direct method assumed that learning a foreign language is the same as learning the mother tongue, that is, that exposing the student directly to the foreign language impresses it perfectly upon his mind. This is true only up to a point, since the psychology of learning a second language differs from that of learning the first. The child is forced to learn the first language because he has no other effective way to express his wants. In learning a second language this compulsion is largely missing, since the student knows that he can communicate through his native language when necessary. The basic premise of Direct Method was that second language learning should be more like first language learning: lots of active oral interaction, spontaneous use of the language, no translation between first and second languages, and little or no analysis of grammatical rules. We can summarize the principles of the Direct Method: – Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language. – Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught. – Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully graded progression organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and student in small, intensive classes. – Grammar was taught inductively, i.e. the learner may discover the rules of grammar for himself after he has become acquainted with many examples. – New teaching points were introduced orally. – Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas. – Both speech and listening comprehension were taught. – Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized

Major Religions Essay

Religions are among the most influential forces in history, if not the most influential at all. Most historical events that has shaped or helped shaped the world as it is today were founded along religious backgrounds and teachings. From Constantine to the fall of the Roman Empire, from European conquest to the Crusades, and from the condemnation of heretics to religious terrorism, these are events with religious influences that took part in the course of history. Even today, religion plays an important role in people’s actions that affect the society and even influences politics. Religion is so influential in fact that even when science has slowly displaced religious beliefs, it has remained a powerful force in dictating public opinion, compelling political leaders to act according to their standards. Religion’s Role in Society Religion is an important topic in every human civilization. The culture, tradition and beliefs of people are based on religion. The importance of religion in every human civilization, and indeed of the society, could not have been stated more precisely in Charles Taylor’s foreword to Marcel Gauchet’s book entitled The Disenchantment of the World: A Political History of Religion from which he used Durkheim’s ideas. He explained that for Durkheim, religion was the very basis of society—â€Å"a pattern of practices that gives a certain shape to our social imaginary† (as cited in Taylor 1997, x). Gauchet, on the other hand, explained the expansion of religion as an accompanying goal of expanding the state. He wrote: â€Å"wars of expansion could no doubt be justifiably considered one of the greatest spiritual and intellectual forces to have ever operated in history† (Gauchet 1997, 36). This he reasoned by stating that â€Å"religious upheaval is inscribed in the State’s action, contained within its necessities as dictated by the political division. Broadening the State’s influence subjectivizes supernatural forces, which can only further broaden its practical scope for dominion by making it an intermediary for an instituting will that it administers. We see how the dialectic between the visible forces and its invisible guarantor, between the actual and presumed power, slowly draws the religious into history† (1997, 40). Significant Historical Events Influenced by Religion There are quite a number of events influenced by religion that has changed the course of history, but perhaps none as prominent as the establishment of Christianity. Beginning with a small sect of Jewish tradition whose members were persecuted for their beliefs, Christianity has emerged to be the most popular religion around the world today, with adherents comprising up to a third of the world’s population. Christians, during the Roman Empire, were persecuted and blamed whenever it was found convenient to blame them for some problems of the Empire. It was not until Emperor Constantine had converted to Christianity did the religion secure its future. Apparently, Constantine held that his victory from a battle against a rival was due to his vision to fight under the Christian standard—the cross. Christianity continued to be influential in empires succeeding the decline of the Roman Empire. The Byzantine Empire, as a continuation of the Roman Empire, rose through a deep religious faith along the majestic pattern of the Roman State and Hellenism. With Theodosius as emperor, pagan worships and heresies were declared illegal thereby promoting Christianity to all territories of the Empire. Some held that the Byzantine Empire had allowed for the widespread adoption of Christianity to Europe be defending the West from pagan invaders from the East. The Empire also brought a close link between the state and the church in that while the emperor takes the lead, the church set a high standard in its relation to secular powers. â€Å"In the threat of excommunication the western church discovers a powerful weapon for dealing with wayward rulers† (HistoryWorld). By the end of the fifth century AD, kings and popes would wield power from the Italian peninsula in the West while emperors would still rule in the East. Christianity is such an important feature of the Empire that when Jerusalem fell into the hands, first of Persia then of the Muslims, it became an urgent matter of State. As the Byzantine Empire was strengthened by the Christian faith, it faced its greatest threat with another rising religion. Islam, with its expansionist doctrine, had conquered the Persian Empire and has severely crippled the Byzantine Empire that before the launching of the First Crusade Byzantium had become the boundary between the Christian West and the Muslim East. The influence of religion as a powerful force in history is perhaps best exemplified in the Crusades. The fact that the wars the Crusades waged into became a contest between the two most influential religions today proves this point. The size and scale of the Crusades could be attributed to the effectiveness of Pope Urban II call for military support against the infidels who threatened their Christian brothers in the East, promising the immediate remission of sins to all those who die for the cause and stating that â€Å"God wills it. † While the Crusades were ordained by the church, the destruction of its knights, particularly that of the Knights Templar, could be attributed to the interplay between the church and the state, with the church taking on a more passive role. It could be argued that while it was under the Pope (Clement V) who found the Templars as heretics, effectively disbanding them and persecuted them, the fact that Philip IV could not have done it himself without pressuring the church proves that the church extends its influence on public opinion. The state relied on the church’s approval and pressured it to promote its will when necessary to make it seem that the state’s actions have the blessing of the church. After all, a king of any Christian domain would not be king until ordained by the church. Hence, it is only natural for the king to seek the approval of the church or to make it seem they have its approval for their rule to be acceptable. The interplay between the state and the church could also be seen in the church’s influence in the scientific community. This is best exemplified in discoveries and theories that contradicts Biblical claims. The Copernican system, for example, was condemned because it contradicts the claim of man being the center of God’s creation that Galileo was forced to withdraw his findings even when he had his proof that the earth revolves around the sun. Darwin’s theory of evolution was also met with hostilities because of its claims against religious beliefs that God created the world in six days. While science has slowly displaced religious claims, religion remains to be influential. Up until this day, there are anti-evolution movements that promotes the creation of man and the world by an intelligent being. Contemporary Religion Influences Frank Lambert (2008, 2), in his book, Religion in American Politics, explained that â€Å"as religion shapes individual character and moral development, it thereby influences public affairs, albeit in an indirect way. † As an example, he stated that â€Å"through moral instruction, religion informs the values, priorities, and decisions of citizens and officeholders as they enter the voting booth and the statehouse† (2008, 2). Religious groups, Lambert continued to explain, also become more directly involved in the political process. â€Å"They lobby Congress to enact or oppose specific legislation, participate in electoral politics on behalf of candidates who support their agendas, and offer the full range of their institutional resources to sympathetic political parties† (Lambert 2008, 2). It is important to note that such connection between the state and religion is not limited to America. Religions around the world continue to exert its influence in political affairs by stirring their adherents and promoting their stands into public opinion. This is especially seen in Christian countries. While religious groups continue to play an important role in political affairs, extremist factions of religious origins assert their influence in a more violent manner. Religious terrorism is perhaps the most dangerous, complex and persistent problem the world has faced. Juergensmeyer held that perpetrators in religious terrorism place â€Å"religious images of divine struggle—cosmic war—in the service of worldly political battle† (as cited in Gary 2001). Religious terrorism is a tactic in political strategy while at the same time evoking a much larger spiritual confrontation. Muslim terrorist, for example, continue to call on the divine doctrine of jihad in the destruction of infidels. Much as it has united the Muslims during the Muslim conquests, it continues to have an appeal for extremists into using violence in promoting their ideals. Note that religious terrorism does not encompass solely on Islam. Throughout the world, violence committed in the name of religion occurs. Conclusion Time and again, we see that the influence of religion in worldly affairs can dictate much of what happens in the course of history. Major battles have indeed been waged in the name of religion in the past. We see this through the Crusades, the Muslim conquests, and the religious wars in the sixteenth century. Stately affairs must have the approval of the church, or every action of the state must seem to have its approval. Even the scientific community is influenced by religion, especially with scientific theories and discoveries contradicting religious claims. Today, religion still has a major influence in political affairs, providing moral instructions to their adherents whose approval political parties must win and pressuring legislation in favor of their moral doctrines. In the guise of spiritual confrontation, religion is also exerting its influence through violent means. Despite the technologies and philosophies that has come in modern age, religion continues to be a powerful influence in dictating the course of history. References Gary, Jay. 2001. Unmasking religious terrorism. http://jaygary. com/terrorism. shtml Gauchet, Marcel. 1997. The Disenchantment of the World: A Political History of Religion. Ed. Oscar Burge. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. HistoryWorld. History of the Byzantine Empire. http://www. historyworld. net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories. asp? historyid=ac59 Lambert, Frank. 2008. Religion in American Politics: A Short History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Taylor, Charles. 1997. Foreword to The Disenchantment of the World: A Political History of Religion by Marcel Gauchet. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Correlational research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Correlational - Research Paper Example The first step in the design will be to make an observation of a social event or situation. In this instance, such observation has already been made, the outcome of which has helped in determining the two variables to use. This is because of De Voss et. Al. (1982) indicated that when observations are made about issues that are unknown, unexplained or new, it helps in formulating problems from the observed issues. The problem that will be dealing with can, therefore, be said to be the impact of aptitude test on success in an algebra course. That is, if aptitude test correlates positively with success with algebra test, then it means students’ failure can be associated with low aptitude test outcomes.The second step in the design will be to formulate a hypothesis or a set of hypotheses that explain the observations. A hypothesis is a general claim made about the relationship between the variables before actual data collection begins (Meredith, Gall, and Borg, 2007). The hypothes is must, however, be approached in such a way that it can be tested as being either valid or not valid. Depending on the background research performed on the variables, it will be possible to easily formulate a hypothesis that can be validated. For this topic, a possible hypothesis is that there is no relationship between an aptitude test and success with algebra course.The third stage is one of the most important, where the researcher designs or formulates a plan to test the hypothesis that has been set.

Final exam Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Final exam - Coursework Example Financial leases are referred to as long-term debts and are included in the balance sheet while operating leases are referred as operating expenses and can be excluded from the balance sheet (Needles & Powers, 2012). II). Capitalizing of leases and related assets have several benefits. Use of long-term leases ensures that payment is paid in full as agreed since there is no cancelation of the agreement. In addition, the payment period is almost the same with the useful life of the asset. It also provides the lessee with the option of buying the asset at a nominal value at end period due to the agreement (Needles, & Powers, 2012). A long-term lease costs less than a short-term lease and does not require immediate payment as rental payment is deducted in full for tax purposes. Use of short-term lease however allows the risk of ownership to remain with the lesser and the lease period is shorter than the useful life of the asset (Needles, & Powers, 2012). Leases however have various disadvantages which include the following. There must be payment of interest regardless of the economic position of the company. Secondly the interest rates are fixed and do not consider the economic condition of the firm. However, excessive lease increase the risk of shareholders hence reducing the share prices (Needles, & Powers, 2012). 3). Interest expense should be deducted from the operating cash flows. The University of Le Verne M.B.A is right. According to Brigham & Earnhardt (2013), interests should not be included in calculating cash flows of a project. This is because the project cash flows are discounted by risk involved in the cost of capital interest being expenditure. The cost of financing a project may either be in the form of interest expense, debt financing, or dividends from shareholders. Excluding cost such as interest expense in the calculation of cash flows may seem to be illogical but it is

Answering questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Answering questions - Essay Example The object of knowledge is on that which altogether is real. In contrast, the object of belief is on one which is real and not real (Plato et al. 181; par. 477e). Thrasymachus makes two assertions regarding what is just or right. He points out that justice is the action of serving the interest of a stronger one. It is an advantage of the strong. He also adds that just actions are those that obey the state’s law (Plato and Grube, 15; par. 338c). Glaucon takes up the argument from Thrasymachus in terms of defining justice in a contrasting way. Glaucon points out that justice is a compromise between fear and advantage. People comprehend that being unjust is usually to their advantage; nevertheless, they fear being a victim of injustice. Hence, if one could act in an unjust manner and not suffer consequences, one could (Plato and Grube, 38; par. 358e). Plato describes the ideal city as one based on human virtue and justice. An ideal city is a form of political and social organization that allows individuals to maximize their potentials. The ideal city has three classes of people; the guardians, the auxiliaries and the producers. The leaders and citizens must have courage, wisdom, justice and moderation. This will allow individuals to serve their citizens and live according to the universal truths and laws. The role of the ideal city is to preserve and protect the universal principles. In plato’s ideal city, the guardians serve to protect and lead. There is a division of labor in his ideal city hence enables the satisfaction of the needs of the community. Each man should be given the best job in which he is suited in for. This will ensure productivity in the ideal city (Plato and Grube, 105; par. 412c). It is imperative for the ideal ruler to understand the forms. When one understands the forms, the soul reaches an understanding that is far beyond the thought stage. An ideal ruler should understand the true

Contributory Role of Richard Cantillon, A R J Turgot and Jean-Baptiste Essay

Contributory Role of Richard Cantillon, A R J Turgot and Jean-Baptiste Say Towards Austrian Economics - Essay Example It was in the early fifteenth century when a group of experts and their followers began to emphasize on the process of depicting and quantifying the human actions with the guidance of specific trends. These trends and the explanations of those were further described as theories. Notably, it was in this era that academicians observed human actions to be executed in a law as a reaction towards situational changes. These laws were found to be more apparent amid people when transacting with monetary values (Schulak & Unterkofler, 2011). Notably, the Austrian School can be recognized as one of the foundations of European economic schools of thought. The European schools of thought are often noted to be based on two contradictory dimensions among which one is the Austrian School and the other is the German Historical School (Taylor, 1980). Similar to other stream of theories focusing on the human characteristic and nature, the theoretical emulsion of Austrian School happened through variou s phases and stages presenting new challenges for the then economists to manipulate into comprehensive, structured and rationale methodologies. Certainly, the then economists were few of the early academicians with insignificant theories to develop relevant methodologies and thus had to depend on their understandings, perceptions and theoretical knowledge. Moreover, the economists during that time period considered the value of theories to be more relevant and beneficial than referring to the historical courses. This led to numerous contradictory view points as concluded by the then economists and thus rendered a mixed and widely diverse explanation of the economic activities. It is in this context that modern economists grew conscious regarding the need of a generally accepted framework to theoretically describe the economic methodologies, lack of which can result to similar contradictions as was noticed in the case of Austrian School. It is quite noteworthy in this context that th e challenges faced by Austrian economists during the development phases of Austrian School was far more greater than the challenges faced by contemporary economists with due consideration to the then economic philosophy. Furthermore, it is due to this reason that the contribution of economists in developing the Austrian School was recognized to be inevitable and highly appreciable (Gloria & Palarmo, 1999). However, only a handful of economists consider themselves as a part of Austrian School providing larger focus on the criticism of the methodologies presented by Austrian economists (Holcombe, 1999). The relationship existing between the contemporary economic values and traditional economic values with regards to Austrian School tends to be quite distinct. As was noted by Holcombe (1999), even though the modern economics methodologies tend to criticize the Austrian School from various perspectives considering its applications in the academic as well as in public policy making, the contemporary beliefs and theories are becoming increasingly similar to that of the Austrian School. However, it is certainly neither with due consideration nor as a result of the influence perceived by the Austrian economists. It is also not due to the changes occurred in the Austrian School. From an in-depth point of view, the inclination of modern economics towards Austrian School can be observed as the changes occurring in the contemporary economic methodologies. In other words, the perspective of modern economists are emerging to be more similar to the methodologies presented in the Austrian School but in a complex and furthermore in a practical manner (Holcombe, 1999). Multiple researches can be obtained

Alzheimers Disease Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Alzheimers Disease - Essay Example The frequency of AD increases with each adult of decade life, reaching 20-40% of the population over the age of 85 (Fauci et.al, 2008). It is present in approximately 3% to 11% of people older than 65 years of age and in 25% to 47% of people older than 85% (Seidel et.al, 2006). The cognitive changes with AD tend to follow a characteristic pattern, beginning with memory impairment and spreading to language and visuospatial deficits (Fauci et al., 2008). Initially, patients present with "forgetfulness", with them having difficulty remembering recent events or names of familiar people. However, as the disease progresses, their cognition is affected and they no longer think clearly. Eventually, language deficits will present as problems in speaking, understanding, reading, or writing. Problems with simple activities of daily living (ADL) such as dressing, eating and solving simple calculations will soon follow. The most important risk factors for AD are old age & a positive family history (Fauci, et.al, 2008). The risk for AD increases with increasing age and although the most cases do not show an inheritance patter, there is Familial Alzheimer's Disease which is an inherited and rare form of this disease, occurring at an earlier onset. ... Females are affected more than males. At present, the only way to definitely diagnose Alzheimer'sis through a brain autopsy but for living patients, physicians can correctly diagnose Alzheimer'sdisease about 90 percent of the time based on mental and behavioral symptoms, a physical examination, neuropsychological tests and laboratory tests (Alzheimer's Disease Research, 2008). A thorough subjective and objective assessment is pertinent to do in a patient suspected of having AD. Signs and symptoms experienced by the patient, especially of mental and behavioral deficits, and a complete family history should be obtained from the patient. Physical examination and neuropsychological examinations are also performed to confirm or rule out any pathology causing other types of dementia. Brain scans such as MRI and CT Scan can show characteristic structural changes present in Alzheimer's disease as well as rule out brain tumors or ischemia as the cause for the dementia. EEG can also be performed to measure the brain activity of the patient. Neuropsychological examinations include the Mini-Mental Status Examination (MMSE), to help confirm that the patient is experiencing problems with intellectual functions (Alzheimer's Disease Research, 2008). Patients who have a family history should undergo tests in their early 30's to 40's and as a general screening, older population, especially those with initial symptoms should have Health Assessment 4 themselves tested in their 50's or 60's. The tests can be repeated every 6 or 12 months, to verify the degree of progression of the dementia. Non-pharmacological prevention strategies include early prevention and lifestyle modification. Proper diet, regular exercise

Autobiography Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Autobiography - Essay Example This lack of parental supervision and guidance led me to fall into the wrong crowd. Although I was constantly bounced within the foster and educational system, I managed to keep my optimism about my future intact. Little did everyone at the community high school and mainstream high schools that I attended know that what they thought were behavioral issues such as acting as the class clown and rudeness towards authority were actually the methods by which I was trying to express my creativity. Having discovered my talent for music and writing helped ease the conflicts within my life and give me a direction. My talents did not go unnoticed in our town as I often find myself invited to perform my original compositions at local hotspots where I am always warmly welcomed and embraced by the audience. I even became a local celebrity in my own right when I was invited to perform at the Senior Center as my performance together with the choral group that I am a member of was covered by and reported by the local paper. All my experiences in life have led me to understand the importance of education and its direct effect on my life and on the life of those around me. I will be the first generation graduate in my family and I hope that my accomplishment over the adversities of life will serve as an inspiration to those around me. I want them to see me as an example of how it is never too late to take charge of your life and accomplish anything that you want to and gain recognition for it. I am looking forward to attending college either at a local or out of town university where I can learn all about the business world alongside the development of my love for music. I believe that business and music can make beautiful music together as a musician such as I must have the knowledge and skill to promote my talents as a business and invest the earnings that I make from my engagements in order to keep me financially secure in the

The Cost of Computer Literacy Essay Example for Free

The Cost of Computer Literacy Essay What are the costs of computer literacy? Some people argue that there are no such costs, but I believe there are a few which may be relevant. Does computer literacy affect the way we communicate, and if so, is this necessarily a bad thing? What is our future, as computer literacy becomes a necessity? What are the personal, financial, and social costs, as computer literacy becomes a necessity? According to Websters New World dictionary, literacy is defined as the ability to read and write. There is definitely more than one interpretation of the word literacy as we have seen in class discussions and from reading many essays on the subject. The world has grown beyond the understanding of literacy as the ability to read and write- we now have many diverse understandings of the word. But there is a new literacy emerging around the world that will soon demand the immediate attention of everyone. I am referring to computer literacy. As our society becomes increasingly dependent on computers to take care of our daily needs, it creates a high demand for skilled professionals to maintain as well as take advantage of this technology. The computer job market is like a wave, a technology wave. I had the choice to ride the wave and possibly make a lot of money at the age of only 18. But if I had not decided to go to college now, instead of working full time, there is no guarantee that I would have a job when that technology wave breaks. Last year, at the age of 18, I was working in a computer software company as a network administrator and making more than some people that have a college degree. Some may look at this as a tremendous opportunity, but I saw it as a possible pitfall. At first, I saw taking advantage of my high computer literacy as having no costs whatsoever, but what I was reluctant to see was that I was not taking any college classes to further my education. This would have proved to be a significannot mistake if I had not seen the possible negative aspects of not having a college degree to fall back on. How do you measure that cost or its cost to society? The degree and education that I get by going to college may prove to be a very important part of my future. As new technologies are developed, your job in the market may not be in demand. This is the case with network administration. Novell was a hot networking software package and then Microsoft came along and engulfed the network operat! ing system market with NT Server. Employers are going to be looking for people specialized in the hot fields. I have learned that a job is never permanent, but no one can take your education from you. Its about having options on your road in life and from what I have seen your education does just that. Have computers hindered our ability to communicate effectively? The question refers to our ability to fully express ourselves. Many times we just send e-mail that is very brief and doesnt reveal what we really want to say. We are increasingly taking old-fashioned ways of conversing for granted. The day of telephone calls, faxes, and just good old letter writing are almost phased out. Lets face it, its much easier and efficient to send internet mail that can be there in less than 10 seconds than having to hand-write a letter and put it in the mail. It costs you 32 cents and you have to wait days for the other party to receive it. But what will this cost society? New jobs will be created by technology but there is also the unemployment cost to those who lost jobs to technology. What kind of behavioral cost will come from this? What happens when we cant negotiate and have no people skills? What are the costs of these skills? Take a look at the way we now communicate with our co-workers. We are merely feet from each other in the office, yet we no longer stand up and walk over to talk with someone face to face. Why? Is it easier to send them e-mail and await a response? We lose many forms of communication this way. We dont get that one-on-one interaction with each other, we cant see gestures and body language, and this may even be ground for miscommunication. To me it often seems that we can put aside many of the things that we would not be able to if there was some type of face to face meeting. We can say that we havent received that mail, or that we havent checked our mail yet. Computers are making communicating easier, but are they making it more effective? Is there a cost to the technician working with no personal contact? Instead of calling on the phone to report a computer problem, there has been the advent of the e-form. This is yet another alternative to the phone call or talking with someone. The e-form is comprised of a template with data fields that give all the relevant information an administrator or technician would need to come and fix a problem or answer a question. This is a wonderful idea for 3 reasons: (1) You no longer need someone to answer a phone, (2) No lost information between the caller and the technician, and (3) you have the ability to log it in a database to keep track of problems which also allows you to analyze the data to prevent future occurrences. So, conceivably, your computer problem or question could be fixed or answered without ever having to talk to a single person. Communication is very important to our world. This is how we interact with each other, and ultimately succeed. We need to be able to share information in a smart and efficient manner. The computer lets us do this in many ways. For some though, the computer is financially out of their reach. With the price of computers hovering around the fifteen hundred to eighteen hundred dollar price range, this is not easily attainable for many. The monetary cost of a computer, ironically, seems to be the main cost of becoming computer literate for many people. The best thing about computer literacy it that once you have it you can keep on applying it. Tomorrows technology will evolve from todays hardware and software. Do you have all the options that you will need in your life? Computers are simply that, another option for your career and your life. It has changed the way we communicate some see it as better and some as worse. As computer literacy becomes a necessity we are faced with the facts that we are an ever-changing society that demands the use of technology. We will keep putting aside the costs of this literacy as long as we only see the positive aspects of a technology-centered future.

Aqa as Philosophy Revision Notes †Reason and Experience Essay Example for Free

Aqa as Philosophy Revision Notes – Reason and Experience Essay Knowledge and Belief †¢ People can believe things that aren’t true. †¢ For you to know something, it must be true and you must believe it. †¢ Beliefs can be true or false. †¢ Beliefs can accidentally be true, but it isn’t knowledge. Types of Knowledge †¢ Analytic – true by definition – â€Å"Squares have 4 sides†. †¢ Synthetic – not analytic, true or false in the way the word is – â€Å"Ripe tomatoes are red†. †¢ A priori – doesn’t require sense experience to know – â€Å"all bachelors are unmarried†. †¢ A posteriori – can be established through sense experience – â€Å"Snow is white†. All Analytic propositions are known a priori. This doesn’t mean that all a priori propositions are analytic. The main question is â€Å"Are all synthetic propositions a posteriori? † i. e; do we have some knowledge that doesn’t come from sense experience? It is this question that forms the debate between rationalism and empiricism. Rationalism vs. Empiricism †¢ Main dividing questions are: â€Å"What are the sources of knowledge? †, â€Å"How do we acquire it? †, â€Å"How do we get concepts? †. †¢ Rationalism gives an important role to reason. †¢ Empiricism gives an important role to the senses. †¢ Why can’t we use both in acquiring knowledge? Rationalism. †¢ Rationalism claims that we can have synthetic a priori knowledge of the external world. Empiricism denies this. †¢ Rationalists argue that it’s possible for us to know some synthetic propositions about the world outside our own minds, e. g. Maths and morality. Empiricists argue that it is not. †¢ Both rationalists and empiricists accept that we naturally have certain thoughts and feelings inside our minds. Empiricism †¢ An advantage of empiricism is that it allows us to quickly see how we ascertain our knowledge – through our senses by perceiving how the world is, which is a causal process – it requires no mental reasoning. †¢ Empiricists also claim that this is how we acquire our concepts – through our senses. †¢ Once we understand the acquired concepts, we gain analytic knowledge. If we have knowledge that doesn’t come from sense experience – how do we get this knowledge? Rationalists argue that we either gain this knowledge from ‘rational intuition’ or ‘insight’, which allows us to gain this knowledge intellectually, or we just know these truths innately as part of our rational nature. Rationalists may also argue that some, or even all of our concepts are innate of come from rational insight. Do All Ideas Derive From Sense Experience? John Locke – Mind as a ‘Tabula Rasa’ †¢ Locke argues that all ideas derive from sense experience. †¢ He says that the mind at birth is a ‘tabula rasa’ – a blank slate that gets filled up with ideas from the senses. †¢ He refutes the claim of ‘innate ideas’. †¢ Ideas can either be part of a proposition: â€Å"He had the idea that it would be fun to take the day off†; or they can be concepts: â€Å"the idea of yellow†. †¢ Locke says that all our concepts derive from sense experience, and that we have no knowledge prior to sense experience. From Locke’s definition of ‘innate idea’, it follows that everyone with a mind should have the same ideas. However, there is no truth that every person (including people lacking reasoning skills) can assent and agree to. So perhaps, with Locke’s definition, innate ideas are ones that we known as soon as we gain the use of reason. Locke refutes this, saying that we aren’t lacking reason but the knowledge of ideas. For example, a child can’t know that â€Å"4 + 5 = 9† until the child can count up to 9 and has the idea of equality. It is the same thing as knowing that an apple is not a stick – it’s not a development of reason, just the gaining of knowledge of ideas. So therefore, if we must first acquire the concepts involved (through sense experience), the proposition cannot be innate, as no proposition is innate unless the concepts used are innate. Locke argues that the mind has no concepts from birth, and so no truths or concepts can be innate. A Different definition of ‘innate idea’ †¢ Locke’s definition and argument against innate ideas hasn’t been criticized †¢ People who believe in innate ideas don’t accept Locke’s definition †¢ Nativists maintain the view that innate ideas are those which cannot be gained from experience †¢ Nativists tend to argue on how concepts or knowledge can’t be acquired from sense experience †¢ Because we don’t know all concepts from birth, there is some point when we become aware of our concepts †¢ Rationalists argue that experience triggers our awareness of our innate concepts. Experience as a ‘Trigger’ †¢ Children begin to use certain ideas at certain time, and their capacities develop, so why can’t their concepts and knowledge also develop? †¢ Children begin to use certain ideas at certain times †¢ Experience still plays a role – a child must be exposed to the relevant stimuli for the knowledge to emerge, e. g.language. †¢ An idea is innate if it cannot be derived or justified by sense experience. Empiricists on Arguing Concepts John Locke 1. The senses let in ideas 2. These ideas furnish an ‘empty cabinet’ 3. The mind grows familiar with these ideas and they’re lodged in one’s memory 4. The mind then abstracts them, and learns general names for them 5. The mind then has ideas and the language by which it can describe them †¢ However, what does it mean to ‘let in ideas’? †¢ We contrast ideas with sensations, e. g. the sensation of yellow isn’t the same as the concept of yellow †¢ Locke fails to make this distinction David Hume †¢ Hume believes that we are directly aware of ‘perceptions’ †¢ Perceptions are then divided into ‘impressions’ and ‘ideas’ †¢ Both Locke and Hume divide impressions into ‘impressions of sensation’ and ‘impressions of reflection’ †¢ Impressions of sensation come from our sense data and that which we directly perceive †¢ Impressions of reflection derive from the experience of our mind, such as feeling emotions. †¢ Hume says that ideas are ‘faint copies’ of impressions †¢ Therefore, there are ideas of sensation (e. g. the idea of red) and ideas of reflection (e. g. the feeling of sadness, happiness) †¢ Concepts are a type of idea. †¢ Hume’s theory of how we acquire ideas (from copying them from impressions) is a theory of how we acquire concepts) †¢ Locke and Hume both have slightly different versions of how we acquire ideas with which we can think †¢ We start with experiences of the physical world which we get from sense data and experiences of our mind †¢ For Locke, this gives us ideas once we employ our memory to reflect on these experiences †¢ According to Locke, this makes it sound that the remembered experiences are the ideas with which we think †¢ Hume corrects this, and says that we remember and think with the copies of the sensory impressions. Simple and complex concepts †¢ A complex idea is just an idea made up of several different ideas, e. g. a complex idea (a dog) is made up of simple ideas like shape, colour and smell. †¢ This complex idea has a complex impression †¢ We can therefore form complex ideas by abstraction. †¢ As an objection, rationalism raises the question of where do non-empirical ideas come from? †¢ Empiricism is appealing, as we seem to intuitively trust our senses and it easily answers such questions. †¢ However, there are complex ideas that correspond to nothing from our sense experience, e. g. unicorns or God. †¢ So do all ideas derive from sense experience? †¢ Empiricists argue that these complex ideas are made up from simple ideas, which are copies of impressions (e. g. a unicorn is the simple concepts of a horse, a horn, and the colour white, and combined together they give us a unicorn) †¢ Hume and Locke argue that when creating complex ideas, one can only work with the materials that our impressions provide – simple ideas †¢ Complex ideas are no more than altering or abstracting these simple ideas †¢ Therefore, empiricists answer this rationalist objection So Are There Innate Concepts? †¢ What would an empiricists’ analysis of complex concepts like self, causality, substance, etc.be? †¢ These concepts must either be innate, or reached using a priori reasoning †¢ Hume accepts that these complex concepts cannot be derived from experience †¢ However, he states that each of these concepts has no application †¢ These concepts are confused, and we should always use concepts that can be derived from experience †¢ For example, we don’t experience our ‘self’, we experience a changing array of thoughts and feelings. †¢ To come up with the idea of ‘self’, we’ve confused similarity with identity †¢ We do the same with the idea of a physical object †¢ A physical object exists independently of experience, existing in 3d space. †¢ But can experience show us something that exists independently of experience? †¢ If I look at a desk, look away, and then look back again, the desk must have existed when I wasn’t looking at it. †¢ I can’t know that my experience was of the same desk, only that the experiences are similar †¢ When coming up with the concept of a physical object that exists independently of experience, I confuse similarity with identity. †¢ Hume concludes that these concepts are incoherent confusions †¢ This can be objected though †¢ This makes most of our common-sense understand and analysis of the  world incorrect – we know that our concepts are coherent. †¢ Empiricism now seems to challenging to accept, as it makes our concepts ‘illusory’. †¢ The fact that we cannot derive the aforementioned from experience shows that they are innate †¢ Empiricists therefore have a flawed argument – explaining our most abstract concepts is an argument that these concepts are not derived from experience. †¢ Does this therefore mean that they’re innate or arrived at through rational intuition? †¢ One reason to think they’re innate is that children use these concepts before they develop rational intuition. †¢ Rationalists therefore argue that experience is the trigger for the concept Does all knowledge about what exists rest on sense experience? Hume’s Fork †¢ We can have knowledge of two sorts of things: ‘Relations between ideas’, and ‘matters of fact’ †¢ Relations of ideas are propositions like ‘all sons have fathers’ †¢ Hume argue that all a priori knowledge must be analytic, and all knowledge of synthetic propositions must be a posteriori †¢ Anything that is not true by definition (‘matters of fact’) must be learned through the senses †¢ Hume’s ‘matters of fact’ are essentially analytic truths. Matters of Fact †¢ Hume says that the foundation of knowledge of matters of fact is what we experience here and now, or what we can remember †¢ All our knowledge that goes beyond the aforementioned rests on casual inference †¢ For example, if I receive a letter from a friend with a French postcard on it, I’ll believe that my friend is in France. †¢ I know this because I infer from post mark to place †¢ I think that where something is posted causes it to have a postmark from that place. †¢ If the letter was posted by my friend, I believe that he is in France. †¢ I ‘know’ this because I rely on past experiences. †¢ I don’t work out what causes what by thinking about it †¢ It is only our experience of effects and causes that brings us to infer what cause has what effect. †¢ Hume denies that this is ‘proof’ †¢ He says that knowledge of matters of fact, beyond what we’re experience here and now relies on induction and reasoning about probability. Induction and Deduction †¢ The terms relate to a type of argument †¢ Inductive is where the conclusion is not logically entailed by its premises, but supported by them †¢ If the premises are true, the conclusion is likely to be true. †¢ The French letter example is an example of inductive reasoning. †¢ A Deductive argument is an argument whose conclusion is logically entailed by its premises †¢ If the premises are true, the conclusion cannot be false †¢ E. g. Premise 1: Socrates is a man; Premise 2: All men are mortal; Conclusion: Socrates is mortal. Using a priori intuition and demonstration to establish claims of what exists †¢ Rationalists argue against Hume, saying that some claims about what exists can be grounded on a priori intuition. †¢ A priori demonstration, or deduction, is deduction that uses a priori premises †¢ Rational intuition is the view that you can discover the truth of a claim by thinking about it  Descartes †¢ Descartes says that we can establish the existence of the mind, the physical world and God through a priori reasoning. †¢ He attacks sense experience, and how they can deceive us †¢ We can’t tell if we’re being deceived by an evil demon through our senses, as what we are experiencing will be false †¢ We can establish that we think, and therefore we exist, even if our senses do deceive us (as we don’t need our senses to know our mind exists) †¢ This conclusion of thinking and doubting that we exist was gotten to by pure reasoning. †¢ He also establishes that the mind can exist from the body. †¢ Descartes says we don’t know what causes these experiences †¢ It could be an evil demon, God, or the physics world exists exactly how we perceive it. †¢ If it was God, it would mean he was a deceiver as we have a very strong tendency to trust our senses †¢ If it was a demon, God must have created this demon to deceive us, and because God is perfect by definition, this would mean God isn’t a deceiver, and so he can’t have made a demon – so there must be some kind of a real world †¢ Through a priori intuition and reasoning, Descartes says that the external world must exist, because God exists, and he would not deceive us. Conceptual Schemes and Their Philosophical Implications †¢ Humans don’t all have the same concepts †¢ There are two distinguishable elements to our experience: the data of the senses, and how this data’s interpreted by our concepts †¢ By the latter, it implies that different people would impose different conceptual scheme if they have different concepts. †¢ Conceptual relativism claims that because our conceptual scheme affect how people experience and understand reality, people with different conceptual schemes have different realities. An Implication: Conceptual relativism. †¢ We assume people have different ‘realities’ because we can’t translate their to ours †¢ It assumes language ‘constructs’ reality to say reality is relative to our conceptual schemes †¢ It would mean that reality is dependant on language, which isn’t true – we express our realities by language †¢ A proposition in one conceptual scheme can be true without needing to be express in another set of scheme. †¢ This means that there isn’t one set of scheme with how the world works †¢ An objection is that people argue that the relation between experience anc conceptual schemes doesn’t make sense. †¢ Benjamin Whorf says that languages organize our experience of the world †¢ This is like trying to organize a wardrobe itself and not the clothes in it †¢ If a conceptual scheme organizes our experience, then our experience must be comprised of individual experiences †¢ Conceptual scheme all have a set of experiences in common †¢ We can pick out individual experiences like smelling a flower, feeling cold, etc. †¢ Any conceptual scheme with these sorts of experiences will end up similar to our own, despite the concepts one hold and their language, and so translation between two different conceptual schemes will be possible. †¢ There may be small parts that can’t be translated, but this only leads to a very mild form of conceptual relativism. †¢ We can’t necessarily combine conceptual scheme †¢ An example is that we can have more or less colours in our vocabulary, and so can describe things in different ways. †¢ The Greeks thought that there was only one colour – bronze, and that everything else was a different shade of bronze. †¢ This doesn’t mean they saw everything in what we call ‘bronze’, it’s just how they described their experiences. †¢ We can therefore only state things depending on the concepts we have.

Nestle Milky Bar Product Line Extentsion Marketing Essay

Nestle Milky Bar Product Line Extentsion Marketing Essay Milkybar white chocolate is an established childrens brand with a rich heritage. Over the past 2 years the volumes on this product have been declining due to negative associations of confectionery brands with childhood obesity. Moreover legislation prevents promoting this product to the key target market. A need for innovation turnaround within the brand portfolio is imperative to ensure survival sustainability on the brand over long term. Consumers preferences during economic downturns are generally do not promote trial of new products as a result of limited discretionary income. The underlying concept is that consumers would rather spend their hard earned cash on products that they are certain of, than products that could potentially be a disappointment. This trend is also amongst low income earners consumers (ACORN Category 5, Group N;O;P;Q;U) (Appendix 1) Manufacturers are also reluctant to make far bigger investments into a new brand prefer to extend established brand names in different product offerings. A product that utilises an existing brand name requires lesser investment than if a entirely new brand name launched. The risk is also lessened through product extension. So while an organisation requires to remain exciting relevant to consumers to ensure its survival the preference is to do this through renovation on existing lines as opposed to complete innovation. Current Market Chocolate Confectionery Nestles standpoint on food nutrition is simple you are what you eat. There is more awareness now is that good food means good health and good life and people are starting to make more food choices based on health. With over 140 years of food and nutrition research, Nestlà © is committed to offering healthier lifestyle choices including Good Food youll enjoy for a Good Life! Due to the nutritional challenges that consumers are faced, what they eat; how much they eat; and the way they live their lives, eating a healthier diet may be daunting. However sometimes a few small changes can make a big difference to your overall health. Nestle commitment is to ensure that consumers dont have to compromise on taste and enjoyment in order to be healthy. Nestle promotes the concept of healthier eating: to eat a healthy balanced diet and the right amount for the level of activity that you do each day in order to avoid unwanted weight gain. By following these guidelines consumers can ensure healthier, good food choices you are more likely to: Feel and look great Meet daily nutritional needs for nutrients, including essential vitamins, minerals and antioxidants Provide a boost to your immunity helping to fight off coughs, colds and other everyday bugs Be better able to control your weight Lower your risk of developing serious illnesses such as heart disease, diabetes or cancers However healthy eating is an aspect of the lifestyle, keeping active as part of your daily life, is also an important part of keeping well and taking care of yourself. Nestle helps to provide good food choices by Providing consumers with useful information on the nutrition content of products both on the website and on the food and drinks packaging Providing consumers with information about healthy eating and tips on how to make healthier choices However while key to Nestles objectives of healthier eating the fundamental vision of good food good life in a nutritionally responsible manner the taste profile of products should not be lost. Consumers Milkybars key consumer has been children aged 5-13. This young consumer segement usually is not the shopper generally the shopper is either parents, family members or caregivers . This in itself provides a key challenge to the marketer, while the product must appeal to the target segment it must also do the same for the shopper. Therefore there are contradictory motives desire of the product from both the shopper the consumer. While the child may simply want a yummy treat, the shopper is concerned about topical issues of high sugar intake, bad nutrition obesity. It becomes very difficult then to appeal to both these very key stakeholders without risking alienating one or the other. The key challenge then is satisfying both these key stakeholders in the purchase decision making process. The actual consumer the child requires a treat with little consequence or thought to nutrition the caregiver requires a product that will offer some nutritional value. A product that could satisfy both these needs will ensure the survival of the brand. To further complicate matters recent development restrictions into advertising childrens brands increases the challenge of marketing a child-focused chocolate brand. Ofcoms restrictions on TV advertising of HFSS (High Fat, Salt, Sugar) prevents Nestle from utilising TV as a medium for Milkybar adverts during key childrens programming slots. Moreover the healthier eating debate has prompted key stakeholders of childrens health like parents, key givers schools to reduce chocolate offer alternatives such as cereal bars, fresh and dried fruit, nuts and seeds thus also limiting the availabilty distribution of Milkybar. The below is a ruling from OFCOM which is the advertising governing body for the UK. Legislation The Government would like to restrict the promotion of food and drink high in fat, salt or sugar (HFSS foods) to children in all its forms , including on broadcast and non-broadcast media) and to encourage the promotion of healthier alternatives. This is against a background of social and governmental concern about rising childhood obesity and ill-health due to dietary imbalance, specifically the over-consumption of HFSS foods and the under-consumption of fresh foods, fruit and vegetables. Both the Department of Health (DH) and the Food Standards Agency (FSA) have identified television advertising as an area where action should be considered to restrict the advertising of HFSS products to children. The brand has previously used the platform of advertising through the concept of a humorous, Wild West-inspired heroes and villains theme. Its most recent TV advert, a sedate looking Milkybar Kid on horseback wandering through a wood, with no dialogue just animal noises, which highlights the whole natural concept. The concept therefore of extending this product into associated categories is imperative. With this in mind exploration into a Milkybar ice cream lollies was initiated. This will extend this product to a different consumption occasion add volumes revenue to the base brand. The product will be positioned as calcium enriched to add value for its consumers. Calcium is a likely association for the already milk rich chocolate bar. The concept behind the added value is the shopper gatekeeper for kids will seek healthier snacking options. And a product that will assist in a key concern for gatekeepers nutrition will provide a creative solution. Milkybar ice cream lollies will be positioned as a snacking/dessert option for children. The creaminess of Milkybar chocolate will appeal to children on the taste platform. The calcium enriched position will add extra value of providing nutritional benefits while being a snack. This will increase its appeal as a healthier snacking option for parents gatekeepers. The portions nutritional guidelines will be in line with Nestles principles of responsible healthier eating. With this in mind the concept for project Cold Cow (Milkybar ice cream lollies) was formulated.

Robert Frosts The Road Not Taken - Making Choices Along the Road of Life :: Road Not Taken essays

The Road Not Taken - Making Choices Along the Road of Life The Road Not Taken can be interpreted many different ways. Depending on the past, present and future attitude one has at the time he read it determines the way the poem may be interpreted. As the title indicates the central theme of this poem is choices. Most people agree that in the poem that Frost was expressing the belief that it is the road or path that one takes or chooses that makes him the man who he is today and will be tomorrow. Everyone is a traveler on lives roads. In the poem there is never just one road to take. Life is a struggle to make the decision of which road to take but a choice must be made. A traveler comes upon "two road deversised in a yellow wood" He is at a cross road point in his life. He is unable to take both paths at once and must make a decision which way he would like to go or how to live his life. He must decide but is remorseful as he states "And sorry I could not travel both". This decision is always difficult to make because it is impossible not to wonder at the cost of taking this path over that one. He can not help but wonder what he will miss if he chooses this road over that one .There is regret before the choice is ever made. He relaxes that in one lifetime it is impossible to travel down both roads and he has a difficult choice to make and is carefully considering his options as well as wondering were each could lead . In attempting to make this decision the traveler "looks down one as far as I could," trying to see the future and were this road might lead. Both roads lead to the unknown and although he tries to see as far as the road stretches he ca nnot see where it is going to lead. It is the way he chooses that sets him of on his journey of life and determines were he is going. He makes his decision and chooses "Then took the other just as far and having perhaps the better claim." This road has a better claim because it was the one that appealed more to him and "it was grassy and wanted wear.

Writing Center Internship paper :: Teaching Authors Essays

Writing Center Internship paper Connective Thinking, Mimetic Thinking, and Minimalist Tutoring Pedagogy For the past two years, I have worked as a tutor at the Rutgers Writing Center as a â€Å"minimalist tutor.† Anthony Lioi, author of â€Å"Small Victories: The Practice and Process of Tutoring,† defines minimalist tutoring as â€Å"a method that requires students to solve their own problems under the supervision of a tutor who acts as a coach, a more experienced peer, rather than an editor† (Lioi, 1). At Rutgers, minimalist tutoring works in conjunction with The New Humanities Reader, which was put together by Kurt Spellmeyer and Richard E. Miller and has as its goal the promotion of â€Å"connective† as opposed to â€Å"mimetic† thinking. Lioi offers the clearest distinction between connective and mimetic thinking when he says, â€Å"’mimetic thinking,’ [is] designed to demonstrate mastery of a pre-established realm of knowledge, and ‘connective thinking,’†¦ links disparate realms of learning in new and unexpecte d patterns to solve problems unanticipated by traditional forms of knowledge† (Lioi 1). To this end, minimalist tutors are trained in a â€Å"hands off† method that emphasizes the importance of giving students exploratory writing exercises to do on their own during the tutoring session and discourages the practice of â€Å"correcting† students’ papers to â€Å"create a ‘perfect’ paper† (2). In my time at the Writing Center, I worked with many students and had much success with the minimalist tutoring methods. However, sometimes with some students, I did not seem to be very effective. I was never sure why the tutoring did not seem to be helping these students, and I couldn’t tell what, if anything, they had in common with each other that would make minimalist tutoring less effective. I was often tempted to break the â€Å"rules† of minimalist tutoring and to apply a more hands-on approach, but I was afraid I would be e ven less useful to them if I did. Finally, I was faced with a student who simply was not getting anywhere with the tutoring, even though I could tell he was working hard. I decided to break the rules and give him the help I thought he needed. In the process, I figured out that minimalist tutoring fails many students for the exact reason that it is effective with so many others. The emphasis of connective thinking over mimetic thinking in the Rutgers Writing Program, and the way that emphasis is translated into minimalist tutoring practices, ignores the specific needs of students who come to Rutgers without a strong background in expository writing.

Patrick Combs Self-Help Guide for Needful College Freshmen

If there is a recipe for self-help books, two of the necessary ingredients are an endorsement from a â€Å"name† self-help or motivation guru/author and trotting out the old Teddy Roosevelt â€Å"man in the arena† mantra. Combs has both: Tom Peters’ kudus on the cover and The Roughrider on page 28. What’s missing is a touch of truth and reality. Nowhere does Mr. Combs describe his own success (perhaps â€Å"I knew I’d never be happy until I got a self-help book published!†) or many student’s real world (perhaps a chapter on majoring in the success of your dysfunctional family, lack of money for traffic fines, broken or stolen personal property, drugged-out roommate and boy/girl friend issues). Instead, Mr. Combs supplies his readers with 154 pages detailing and expanding on a single maxim: figure out what you want to do it life, and do it. Major in Success has some major flaws as well as some great advice. Nonetheless there is a great deal to be gathered from Major in Success, but probably not in the manner Mr. Combs planned. Some great lessons can be learned from understanding not just what is in the book, but what it is that makes the book successful, despite its shortcomings. There are several flaws in Mr. Combs’ advice. First and foremost, the text is replete with anecdotal â€Å"evidence† and devoid of meaningful, quantifiable facts and statistics, and those used are rather disingenuous. In the chapter â€Å"Never Mind the Grades† he cites â€Å"a recent study by the College Review Board† indicating GPA is below ten other factors considered by employers (47).   He uses this â€Å"fact† to buttress his argument to â€Å"never mind the grades†. He fails to mention that in a very competitive job market when ALL of the applicants have those first ten factors, it will likely be factor 11—GPA—that makes the difference. The second glaring discrepancy relates not only to grades but also his contradictory attitude towards the significance of grades. His theory â€Å"college is for developing your talents to learn and do, so that you can learn and do anything you like† (20) begs the question â€Å"then how is that measured?† Most people, including employers, will use grades as the yardstick for learning ability. Mr. Combs fails to address the significance of a student’s â€Å"focus† or major in college. He claims if time spent on â€Å"extracurricular activities is having a negative impact on your grades, don’t panic† (50). He advises telling the prospective employer to the effect â€Å"sure my grades were mediocre, but various club memberships and internships were my priority.† Ask yourself if you would like to say that on a job interview, or â€Å"I managed to knock down a 3.7 GPA with a major in math and a minor in history while working 25 hours a week to help pay tuition and board†? Throughout the text Mr. Combs offers a â€Å"follow your inner voice, go for happiness, not money† philosophy. Goals change, life events come unexpected and being prepared to shift gears quickly is a key asset. A student may regret having used his college time to develop his knowledge and skills in an area of particular interest only to be caught short later when his interest, income needs, or location changes. The â€Å"follow your passion regardless of income† theory works well for those without monetary needs, retirees, and even second or third career adults capable of turning a hobby into a profitable business. However, the practicality of the theory may come into question years later, when either a more fundamental education (liberal arts) gives flexibility or a mainstream â€Å"certificate† program (nursing, teaching) provides job security. There are no less than three very good reasons to read this book. Mr. Combs has filled the margins with hundreds of â€Å"hot tips† and quotations. Included are a large number of references to other texts and sources. He also provides an excellent chapter entitled â€Å"Classes Worth Their Weight in Gold†, detailing almost a dozen courses with universal value. A concentration on these classes will do wonders for marketplace flexibility. The chapter â€Å"Really Get Into It† provides a detailed list of seventeen items designed to turn interest into expertise. There are less obvious lessons to be learned from Major in Success that are arguably just as important as the ideas expressed in the text. Mr. Combs has a â€Å"Special Thanks† page listing probably a hundred or more persons who assisted him. Success is usually a team sport, and the value of associating with mentors and goal-oriented people is invaluable. The book is very well organized; the Table of Contents lists three major sections divided into twenty-nine succinct chapters. If there is ever a life lesson to be learned, particularly for a college student, it is the value of organization. Additionally the text is filled with lists. Making lists is essential for planning, organizing, and tracking in college and throughout life, for anyone.   Finally, the format of the text is very effective, with graphics, margin notes, and lists in a unique and â€Å"out of the box† manner. Individuality cannot be overemphasized. Today there is no typical college student, and whether the reader is an eighteen-year-old freshman or an older adult returning for a second career they will find something in Major for Success applicable to their specific situation. Works Cited Combs, Patrick. Major in Success. California: Ten Speed Press, 1998.